Explain and assess the role that virtue plays in Aristotle's theory of Essay

Explain and assess the role that virtue plays in Aristotle's theory of justice - Essay Example Aristotle claimed that justice should be dispensed in an appropriate manner. He also believed in the strength of virtue in changing the society. Aristotle's book, ‘Nicomachean Ethics’ explained the theory of virtue. He mentioned two kinds of virtue: the moral variety, and the intellectual variety (Raphael 2003). When Aristotle mentioned the subject of moral virtues, he spoke in reference to a person's character, and the way he conducted himself in his daily life. He stated that an individual’s character is a learned function, and not one that he was born with. Essentially, he felt that virtue was merely the balance between different extremes. The Greek term for "happiness" is pronounced as  Eudaimonia, which basically refers to maintaining a pleasant spirit. In Aristotle’s view, the highest objective of man was to maintain joy. Aristotle stressed that the definition of happiness was not merely keeping a happy face on a constant basis, or running after ple asure filled activities so that one can maintain superficial joy. This is how the current society tends to define happiness (Raphael 2003). Happiness and the possession of good morals are factors that are linked, in Aristotle’s view. ... It is probable that the founding fathers of America had this definition of happiness in mind when they declared in the declaration of independence that â€Å"the pursuit of happiness† was to be considered as an objective in the new nation. In Aristotle’s  Nicomachean Ethics, the factors that were necessary to achieve  eudaimonia were defined as self capability and decisiveness. Aristotle affirmed that these characteristics could only be achieved through individual initiative and ambition, which he referred to as the "humanistic" criterion (Raphael 2003). Aristotle also rejected the concept that the greatest good was a god given characteristic that could not be achieved without some kind of divine assistance. H e also believed that happiness was the one characteristic or aspect that was its own reward. It could not be used as a means to realise another higher state of contentment, in other words. Those who discovered real happiness, according to Aristotle, would not feel the desire for something else or to experience some other state of contentment. Aristotle categorised virtues in practical terms. He was of the opinion that virtues dealt with the activities and zeal of the activities that people took part in, and what those activities made them feel like. He divided people’s feelings to fundamental pain and pleasure codes. He was endeavouring to instruct the citizens of Athens in the right way to carry themselves. He also believed that there was no one wrong or right way to feel. In the book on ‘Nichomachean Ethics’, Aristotle affirmed that if a person participated in 'good' acts, or assisted his fellow man, he would

King Hussein bin Talal Essay Example for Free

King Hussein bin Talal Essay Many individuals desire power to create change and leave a mark in history. Though some were successful in achieving this, many were left to do their part and contribute to the betterment of many. One man was able to do this and create his own legacy; an unending desire to develop and create his lasting marks both in the Muslim and Western world. This man, a born leader and dreamer, is King Hussein bin Talal of Jordan. Born in November 14, 1935 from Prince Talal bin Abdullah and Princess Zein al-Sharaf bint Jamil, the young King Hussein possessed the leadership and skill that can surpass his father (King Hussein. gov, 2006). Along with his two siblings, King Hussein lived a happy life full of luxuries and on one day creating a legacy of his own in Jordan. Since the Muslim believed in the traditional transfer of power to the direct descendants of Mohammed, he was being groomed to assume the throne as the forty second generation descendant, when the time comes (American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise, 2009). At such a young age, then Prince Hussein saw the violence of the world when an assassination attempt took his grandfather’s life (King Abdullah). There was a story wherein Prince Hussein was saved from the assassination because of the medal his grandfather gave him wherein in the future he forever cherished the most (American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise, 2009). Due to this sudden turn of events, Prince Hussein’s father, King Talal assumed the throne. However his reign was not going to last for long because of an illness. During his father’s reign, Prince Hussein dedicated his life in the study of politics, law and proved to be a scholar in different areas. He devoted his lifetime towards the pursuit of information and new ideas. His mind was very open to changes and dreamed to improve the welfare of his country (King Hussein. gov, 2006). Not long shall he realize that he will assume the throne of his father and become one of the most prominent figures in the Muslim world. King Hussein’s formal accession to the throne came in two years after his father was proven to mentally incapacitated and unable to lead. Seeing this, formal procedures were made to appoint the next successor and deal with the current issues surrounding Jordan during that time. â€Å"A Regency Council was appointed until King Hussein’s formal accession to the throne on May 2, 1953, when he assumed his constitutional powers after reaching the age of eighteen, according to the Islamic calendar† (American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise, 2009, p. 1). At a young age of 18, the new King Hussein was a vibrant and energetic fellow. However, his reign was immediately put to the test with the recent challenges and hurdles impeding Jordan’s growth. There were issues of poverty and unemployment in the country. He needed to enact changes immediately to help and sustain the growth of the state and improve the welfare of his countrymen. With this, he primarily focused his ideas and interests in creating and developing the economy and its key industries. He looked into what can make the country benefit more and sought to improve and intensify them with the incorporation of technology during that time. He believed that by devoting his time on this, he can have a competitive advantage over other states. Among these vital sectors include (1) phosphate, (2) potash and (3) cement (King Hussein. org, 2006). Also, King Hussein understood that for trade to increase and develop there must be an available path to vital locations and commercial areas. That is why another of his first projects included linking the many cities of Jordan using an effective highway system. This was a good strategy for the Kingdom because it enabled mobilization and easier access for communication, goods and trade. At this rate, he knew that after a while, changes will start to manifest and help develop the country towards its desired objectives. With his interest in implementing change, many developments have been seen even in the first five years of his reign. Overall, he proved to be a mover towards growth and a powerhouse in giving out what needs to be done. It is reported that during 1950, only 10% of Jordanians have access to clean water, however this has gone up to 99% during his reign as king (King Hussein. org, 2006). Though his interests were focused on the development of the economy, King Hussein never neglected the needs of his people. He believed that the Jordanians are a huge asset towards growth and improvement (American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise, 2009). That is why he also pursued to develop Jordan’s healthcare system and administered cheap but effective treatment to those who need it most. â€Å"UNICEF statistics show that between 1981 and 1991, Jordan achieved the world’s fastest annual rate of decline in infant mortality -from 70 deaths per 1000 births in 1981 to 37 per 1000 in 1991, a fall of over 47%† (American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise, 2009, p. 1). In foreign policy and international relations, King Hussein has always been considered a pacifist. He never wanted to engage in conflict with other states and sought ways to deepen and enhance relationships especially among Muslim countries. In his 45 years of reign as king, he was one of the promoters of implementing peace in the Middle East. He operated and cooperated with the rules and tenets of international organizations such as the United Nations and used it as a model to denounce conflict and war (King Hussein. org, 2006). This was particularly evident as he was a mediator in many conflicts such as the Madrid Peace Conference, the 1994 Peace Treaty, and the 1990-1991 Gulf Crisis (King Hussein. org, 2006). This is important to point out because he wanted peace and tolerance among states either in political and religious affairs. It is through this belief that he modeled his country to be and advocate liberty, human rights and equality among all citizens. With this move, he next sought to democratize the country by offering his power towards citizens via parliamentary elections. It is in here that he amended the Jordanian constitution and sought to include tenets of liberal democratization and political pluralism during the 90’s (American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise, 2009). As far as his personal life is concerned, he had a happy family. He is married to Queen Noor on June 15, 1978 and had 12 children from three different wives. During his past time, away from politics and international relations, he focused his attention on sports such as racing, motorcycles and aviation (King Hussein. org, 2006). At the same time, this did not stop him from writing and he was able to publish three books which are â€Å"Uneasy Lies the Head (1962), about his childhood and early years as king, My War With Israel (1969), and Mon Metier de Roi† (American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise, 2009). However, later in his life, King Hussein has been suffering from different ailments. â€Å"He had surgery for a cancerous kidney in 1992, and had six months of chemotherapy for non-Hodgkins lymphoma at the Mayo Clinic in 1998† (American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise, 2009). The world was shocked when they found out that he died of cancer. Though he did leave Jordan grieving, he left yet another contribution that forever shall be remembered and cherished. â€Å"King Husseins directive to provide Internet access for every Jordanian school highlights yet another aspect of his enduring legacy† (King Hussein. org, 2006). In the end, King Hussein exemplified what really is to be a leader. His grasp of power was used to move not only his country but the world forward. His contributions enveloped change and made his nation prosper. It is wise therefore that his name Al-Malik Al-Insan (â€Å"The Humane King†) be bequeathed accordingly and be recognized as one of the captivating leaders of modern times. Reference American-Isreali Cooperative Enterprise (2009) King Hussein bin Talal in Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved March 5, 2009 from, http://www. jewishvirtuallibrary. org/jsource/biography/Hussein. html King Hussein. org (2006) Biography. Retrieved March 5, 2009 from, http://www. kinghussein. gov. jo/biography. html

Mitochondrial Dna And Genetic Evidence Biology Essay

Mitochondrial Dna And Genetic Evidence Biology Essay Introduction: The Out of Africa model, also referred to as the African origins, total replacement, Noahs ark or Eve model is one model suggesting the origins of humankind. This model hypothesizes that the evolution of the modern humankind from their archaic ancestors occurred in one place at the one time. It suggests that modern humans arose as a new species about 150,000 years ago and that this took place in Africa. It was after this speciation event that the modern humans moved out of Africa, replacing all non-African archaic populations. Africa was identified as the origin of Homo sapiens because of the high genetic diversity among Africans. It is much higher than the genetic diversity of other populations around the world. The further away, geographically, from Africa the less genetically diverse the populations are. The last regions to be settled, for instance South America and the Pacific Islands, have the lowest genetic diversity. This review will focus on the evidence obtained from mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosomal DNA. Both mtDNA and Y-chromosomal DNA are non-recombinant and their inheritance is easier to analysis than for other parts of the genome. MtDNA is only inherited through the maternal line and can therefore be used to determine the female lineage. Analysis of mtDNA revealed a series of population bottlenecks and a progressive loss of diversity moving away from East Africa. The Y-chromosome is passed from father to son and can be used to determine the male lineage. The Y chromosome does not undergo recombination because it is so different from the X chromosome that they dont swap information. This means that the Y-chromosome passed on is the same in father and son (unless it undergoes mutation) making it useful for studying the male lineage. Mutations of both mtDNA and Y-chromosomal DNA accumulate at a fairly constant rate over time, making them useful for estimating the time of human population sp lits. Mitochondrial DNA is also a very good indicator of migration routes and range expansion due to its high distribution and variation. The first lineage to branch off from mitochondrial eve is the L0 haplogroup. The L1, L2 and L3 haplogroups are all descendant of this L0 lineage and are largely confined to Africa. L3 subdivided into the macro haplogroups M and N. These are the lineages found outside of Africa with a low frequency in Africa. The Y-chromosomal haplogroup DE is limited to Africa. Haplogroup F originated in either North Africa or in South Asia. If it originated in North Africa it would indicate a second out of Africa migration. There are two possible scenarios for modern humans dispersal out of Africa. The first suggests a single migration in which only about 150 people left Africa by crossing the Red Sea. The second possibility is that there were two migrations out of Africa. Haplogroup M left by crossing the Red Sea, travelling along the coast to India taking the Southern route. Haplogroup N is thought to have followed the Nile from East Africa, headed north and crossed into Asia via the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt. Historical Background: Charles Darwin was one of the first to propose the idea that the ancestor of the modern human originated in Africa. In his book The Descent of Man he proposed that all living organism originated from a common ancestor and he outlined his views that man descended from apes. He stated that in each great region of the world the living mammals are closely related to the extinct species of the same region. It is, therefore, probable that Africa was formerly inhabited by extinct apes closely allied to the gorilla and chimpanzee; and as these two species are now mans nearest allies, it is somewhat more probable that our early progenitors lived on the African continent than elsewhere. But it is useless to speculate on this subject, for an ape nearly as large as a man, namely the Dryopithecus of Lartet, which was closely allied to the anthropomorphous Hylobates, existed in Europe during the Upper Miocene period; and since so remote a period the earth has certainly undergone many great revolut ions, and there has been ample time for migration on the largest scale. Here he is saying that if his theory of common descent was correct and that man really did descend from apes then it would be likely that man originated in Africa as Africa was the region inhabited at that time by apes. Mitochondrial Eve and Y-chromosomal Adam: Mitochondrial eve is the matrilineal most recent common ancestor, estimated to have lived about 200,000 years ago. All living peoples mitochondrial DNA is descended from hers. She was thought to have lived in East Africa and her discovery supported the theory that all modern humans originated in Africa and migrated from there. Y-chromosome Adam is the patrilineal most recent common ancestor, estimated to have lived between 90,000 to 60,000 years ago. He was also believed to have originated in Africa. The original paper supporting the Out of Africa theory was written by Cann et al in 1987. In which they found evidence that the MRCA lived in Africa about 200,000 years ago. They studied mitochondrial DNA from one hundred and forty seven people between five different populations, African, Asian, Australian, Caucasian and New Guinean. They found that out of the one hundred and forty seven mtDNA mapped, 133 were distinct from each other. Using the parsimony method they constructed a tree relating the 133 types of human mtDNA and the reference sequence: Figure 1: Genealogical tree for 134 types of human mtDNA. The tree accounts for the site differences observed between restriction maps of these mtDNAs with 398 mutations. No other order of branching tested is more parsimonious than this one. This order of branching was obtained by ignoring every site present in only one type of mtDNA or absent in only one type and confining attention to the remaining 93 polymorphic sites. The computer programme produces an unrooted network which was converted into a tree by placing the root (arrow) at the midpoint of the longest path connecting the two lineages. The numbers refer to mtDNA types found in more than one individual. (both figure and text taken from Cann et al, 1987) This is a tree of minimum length. On this tree there are two primary branches, one composed of Africans only and the other composed of all five populations studied. From this tree it was suggested that Africa was the source of the human mitochondrial gene pool. This is because two of the primary branches lead solely to African mtDNAs and the second branch also leads to African mtDNAs. The common ancestor a must be of African origin in order to minimise the number of migrations that occurred. This tree also indicates that every population except for Africa must have multiple origins. For example, mtDNA type 49 is New Guinean but its nearest relative is not New Guinean and is in fact Asian. New Guinea seems to have been colonised by at least seven maternal lineages. This seems to be the same for all other populations apart from Africa. By assuming that human mitochondrial DNA sequence divergence accumulates at a constant rate they were able to work out that the common ancestor, Mitocho ndrial Eve of all surviving mtDNA types existed 140,000 to 290,000 years ago. The mtDNA results do not show when the migrations out of Africa took place. Nuclear DNA studies carried out based on polymorphic blood groups, red cell enzymes and serum proteins showed that differences between racial groups are smaller than within and that the largest gene frequency differences are between Africans and other populations. This supports the Out of Africa theory because it suggests that the human nuclear gene pool also originated in Africa. (Cann et al, 1987) The Genetic Evidence: The technique used to deduce the colonization pattern of the world is coalescence. This theory is a population genetics model based on the genealogy of gene copies and favours the Out of Africa theory. It describes the characteristics of the joining of lineages back in time to a common ancestor.This lineage joining is referred to as coalescence. The theory provides a way of estimating the expected time to coalescence and establishing the relationships of coalescence times to population size, and age of the most recent common ancestor. This theory makes use of the fact that genetic drift over time will result in the extinction of lineages. This means that any sample of DNA markers will coalesce to a common ancestor when looking backward from the present day generation. The limitation of this theory is that all genetic variation coalesces to the MRCA and as a result the population history before this MRCA is unknown. Genomic phylogenetics reconstruction is necessary to assume the dispe rsal routes of early modern humans. Mitochondrial DNA evidence: A study was carried out by Ingman et al describing the global human diversity in humans based on analyses of the complete mtDNA sequence of 53humans of varied origins. They created a neighbour-joining phylogram on complete mtDNA sequences: Figure 2: Neighbour joining phylogram based on complete mtDNA genome sequences (excluding the D-loop). The population origin of the individual is given at the twigs. Individuals of African descent are found below the dashed line and non-Africans above. The node marked with an asterisk refers to the MRCA of the youngest clade containing both African and non-African indivdulals. (Both figure and text taken from Ingman et al, 2000) In this tree, the three deepest branches lead to exlusively African mtDNAs and the fourth deepest branch contains both African and non-African mtDNA. The deepest branch provides excellent support for the origin of human mtDNA in Africa. The amount of mtDNA sequence diversity among Africans is more than double that of non-Africans. This suggests that ther is a longer genetic history for African mtDNA than for non-African mtDNA. The star shaped phylogeny of the non -African sequences suggest a population bottleneck. This is more than likely associatd with the colonisation of Euroasia from Africa, in which the previous populations are replaced with the modern humans dispersal into Euroasia. The figures below show the mtDNA mismatch distributions for Africans and non-Africans The mtDNA from the non-Africans show a bell-shaped distribution , indicating a recent population expansion. The mtDNA from individuals of African origin show a ragged distribution, indicating a constant population size. Figure 3: Mismatch distributions of pairwise nucleotide differences between mtDNA genomes (excluding the D-loop) a) African; b) Non-African. (Both figure and text taken from Ingman et al, 2000) The initial Homo sapiens population dynamics and dispersal routes remain poorly understood. The mtDNA phylogeny can be collapsed into two sister branches L0 and L123456 (L15). The L15 group is more widespread and has given rise to almost all mtDNA lineages found today. The non-African genetic diversity being formed from two subclades of the L3 branch, M and N. Some of the L clades show significant phylogeographic structure in Africa, such as the localization of L1c1a to Central Africa and L0d and L0k to the Khosian people.(Behar et al, 2008) Analysis of the complete mtDNA sequences of Khosian people suggests the divided from other modern humans no later than 90,000 years ago. This reveals evidence for the existence of an early maternal structure in the history of Homo sapiens. L0abfk split over 133,000 years ago. Since this split the expansion of L0d, L0k, L0abf and L15 clades have progressed in an uneven way. L0d and L0k localized in South Africa, giving rise to the Khosian people and L0abf and L15spread all over the world giving rise to all non-Khosian populations. These maternal southern and eastern populations remained isolated from each other for a long period of time. This isolation suggests the formation of small, independent populations in Africa instead of the previously thought uniform spread of modern humans. (Behar et al, 2008) Mitochondrial DNA L haplogroups: Single nucleotide polymorphism studies have shown that human mitochondrial DNA can be classified into groups of related haplotypes. An early paper by Chen et al analysed mitochondrial DNA variation in Africa, revealing continent specific groups of mtDNA haplotypes (haplogroups). There is an HpaI site gain at nucleotide pair (np) 3592 which is found in sub-Saharan populations with a low frequency in populations which have been known to have mixed with Africans. The mtDNA that contain the HpaI site at np 3592 form the most divergent mtDNA haplogroups in the world. Continent specific polymorphisms characterize mtDNAs from European, Asian and Native American populations. These continent specific polymorphisms have a high frequency in one continental population and are specific to either European, Asian or Native American populations. These mutations took place after the genetic separation of the ancestral population that formed the modern human ethnic groups. The oldest and the largest haplogroup in each continent is usually the one that is the most divergent. All the mtDNAs associated with the HpaI site gain at np 3 592 all come from the same common ancestor. These cluster in the L haplogroup. This haplogroup is subdivided into theL0, L1, L2, L3, L4, L5 and L6 sub-haplogroups by additional polymorphisms. The L haplogroup and L1 and L2 sub- haplogroups are said to be of ancient origin due to their dominance in sub-Saharan populations. The ages of these haplogroups were determined from the assumption that nucleotide substitution accumulates at a constant rate. The age of haplogroup L is between 98,000 and 130,000 years, haplogroup L1 is between 86,000 and 113,000 years and haplogroup L2 is between 59,000 and 78,000 years. Comparison of the sequence divergence of the L haplogroup determined that the African haplogroup is the most divergent. The approximate ages for the continent specific haplogroups agree with the theory that all modern humans have a common ancestor from an ancestral population in Africa. These ages also agree with the suggested times of dispersal and migration of the modern human populations into the other continents. The age of the haplogroup L could indicate that this haplogroup originated before modern humans dispersed from Africa. However, the haplogroups L1 and L2 were not carried from Africa by the modern human populations that migrated to the Middle East and Asia. Instead another haplogroup must have participated in this migration. There are mtDNAs that do not contain the HpaI site gain in np 3592. These were found in sub-Saharan populations and suggest that there were some mtDNAs without the 3592 HpaI site that originated in Africa. They are widely distributed in sub-Saharan populations and most likely have an ancient African origin. These mtDNAs are similar to mtDNAs in Europe and Asia and seem to be the only mtDNAs carried out of Africa by migration of the modern humans. They gave rise to the non-African modern human populations and are now know to be haplogroup L3. This paper exhibits data that confirms that there was a high sequence divergence w ithin Africans compared to the rest of the world thereby supporting the Out of Africa Theory. There is less sequence divergence in Asians than in Africans. Native American populations have the lowest values of sequence divergence. (Chen et al, 1995) The minimum coalescence age for modern humans has been estimated to be between 156,000 and 169,000 years before present. Analysis of the L haplogroup has been carried out in order to find those sub-haplogroups involved in the migration of modern humans out of Africa. The L0 haplogroup is the earliest descendant of mitochondrial Eve and is a sister group to the L1 haplogroup. L0 is subdivided into L0a, L0d, L0f and L0k. L0a is thought to have originated in Eastern Africa and is dominant in Ethiopia. The idea that east Africa is the most likely region for L0a variation is further supported by the phylogeny of the L0 clade. L0d and L0k originated in Southern African. L0f is rare and confined to East Africa. The relationship between L0d and L0k is still uncertain. The first ancient split from this into L1b/c occurred over 120,000 years ago. The L1 haplogroup is divided into L1b and L1c. L1b is common in Western Africa and L1c is frequent among central African Bantu speakers. See figure__ for the relationship between these two haplogroups. FIG. 3.-Phylogenetic tree of mtDNA genomes (excluding the d-loop) obtained by maximum likelihood Bayesian analysis. The split into the L2 lineage occurred in Africa over The L2 lineage is divided into two sub-clades L2a1 and L2b. A mutation at np12693 characterizes the L2a1 clade. Ethiopian L2a1 sequences contain mutations at the np 16189 and the np 16309. L2a1c contains mutations at np 16209, 16301 and 16354. L2a1a has a mutation at np 16286. L2a1a is found mostly in South-Eastern Africa. The split into the L3 sub-clade occurred over 59,000 years ago in Africa. The most frequent of the L3 sub-clades is the L3f haplogroup. This haplogroup seems to be confined to East Africa. However, there is an occurrence of variations of this clade in West Africa indicating an early dispersal of the L3f1 lineages. L3f1 is characterized by two mutations in its coding region. The L3 haplogroup is subdivided into three clades, L3i, L3x and L3w. Haplogroup L3i contains a transition at np 7645. It was also found to occur within a sister group of W haplogroup lineages in Eurasia. The L3x haplogroup is characterized by transitions at nps 6401, 13708 and 16169. This haplogroup is very frequent among Ethiopians, especially among the Oromos. It can be sub divided into two clades, L3x1 and L3x2. These two clades are confined to the Horn of Africa and the Nile Valley. The L3w haplogroup contains substitutions at nps 15388 and 16260. This haplogroup is confined to East and North-eastern Africa. L 3b and L3e haplogroups are found in West Africa and Bantu-speaking populations in South-east Africa. The L3d haplogroup is mostly found in Western Africa. It is divided into the two sub-clades L3d1 and L3d2. The L3d1 sub clade has a high frequency in South-East Africa. L3d2 is characterised by transcriptions at nps 15358 and 16256. These occur in Western Africa. Ethiopian L3d2 lineages contain a transition at np 16368 and this is not found anywhere else in Africa. The L3 clade is more related to Eurasian haplogroups than to African clusters of the L1 and L2 haplogroups. L4 is an early branch from L3. It is divided into two sub-clades by three coding and three control region markers. Substitutions at nps 195, 198, 7376, 16207 and 16260 characterise the L4a1 haplogroup. L4g was previously named L3g but it was found to share ancestral character states at nps 769 and 1018 with haplogroup L4a. It is mostly found in Ethiopia. L4a and L4g have high haplotype frequencies and sequence diversity in Ethiopians.The L5 haplogroup is divided into L5a and L5b. L5a is found almost exclusively in East Africa. L5 b on the other hand is spread through Southern Africa.The L6 haplogroup contains six coding transitions and one control region transition. This haplogroup is thought to have originated in East Africa. It is a sister clade of the L2, L3 and L4 are all frequent there, giving support to this theory. The mtDNA tree splits at its core layers into branches that carry exclusively African sequences and just one, L3, which the Africans share with the rest of the world. All non-African mtDNA lineages are derived from just two branches, M and N, branching from the root of the L3 haplogroup. These also give rise to a number of sub-clades specific only to African populations. The N haplogroup gives rise to a daughter clade, R, which is also a founder of extant non-African populations. The first informative split in the mtDNA tree with regards to phylogeny occurs at the level of L3/M, N, R clades. The next informative split in the mtDNA tree distinguishes all major continents excluding America beneath the M, N and R founders. The M and N Haplogroups: The M1 haplogroup has a high frequency in Ethiopia. It has two subclades, M1a and M1b. M1a contains a transition at np 16359. It can be found in Near Eastern, Caucasus and in European populations. The M1b group is smaller and confined to East Africa. Both M1a and M1b are rare in North Africa. Another clade, M1c, is present in Northern Africa, the Canary Islands and the Near East. This clade is characterized by a transition at np 16185. The N (preHV) haplogroup is the most frequent in Ethiopian lineages. This lineage occurs in populations in the Near East, Southern Caucasia and North Africa. Y-chromosomal DNA evidence: The Y chromosome Consortium (2002) tree was updated in a paper by Karafet et al in 2008. This tree identifies the 18 major clades, A to R, in the Y chromosome tree. There are five paragroups that were not based on a derived character and they represent the interior nodes of the tree. There are 243 different mutational events that give rise to 153 non recombining Y chromosome haplogroups. The C and FT haplogroups were united by the P143 mutation. These haplogroups contain lineages that are not usually found in sub-Saharan Africa. The C-FR chromosome must have been carried out of Africa early on in the dispersal out of Africa. The IJ clade is joined by seven mutations and the NO clade is joined by six mutations. The M lineage is joined to two K haplogroups by the P256 marker into the M super clade. Diagram p4 from the revised Y chromosome haplogroup tree. Two mutations, M91 and P97, identify Clade A. This clade is one of the most base haplogroups on the Y-chromosome tree and is almost entirely confined to Africa, being most frequent in Khosian, Ethiopian and Sudanese populations. Clade B is characterized by four mutations and is also almost completely restricted to Africa, mostly confined to sub-Saharan Africa with the highest frequencies in Pygmy populations. The C haplogroup is identified by five mutations. It has not been found in African populations and may have an originated in Asia after the dispersal of modern humans out of Africa. Haplogroup D is defined by two mutations. This haplogroup is also thought to have originated in Asia as it has not been found anywhere else. These lineages are found almost completely in Central Asia and Japan with a low frequency in Southeast Asia and the Andaman Islands. Clade E is identified by 18 mutations and is the most mutationally diverse Y chromosomal haplogroup. These are found mostly in Af rica with moderate frequencies in the Middle East and low frequencies in Central and South Asia. The FT clade is defined by 25 mutations. The F* paragroups has a low frequency in India. The G clade is identified by two mutations and is divided into two subclades, G1 and G2. This clade is mostly present in the Middle East, the Mediterranean and the Caucasus Mountains. Haplogroup H is characterized by one mutation and is divided into two subclades, h1 and H2. This group is almost exclusive to the Indian subcontinent. Clade I is characterised by six mutations and is sub-divided into two subclades, I1 and I2. This clade represents two of the major European Y chromosome haplogroups with clade I1 being found mostly in Northern Europe and clade I2 is widespread in Eastern Europe and the Balkans. Clade J is defined by three mutations and is divided into two major subclades, J1 and J2, and also contains a paragroup J*. These lineages are found at high frequencies in North Africa, the Middle East, Europe, Central Asia, Pakistan and India. Haplogroup K is defined by the derived state at four sites and the ancestral state at the mutations that characterize the L, M, NO, P, S and T lineages. There is a paragroup K* and four different lineages characterized by five mutations. The K1 haplogroup is found at a low frequency in India and the K2, K3 and K4 haplogroups are found in Oceania, Indonesia and Australia. The L haplogroup is characterized by six mutations and the majority of this haplogroup is found in India, with the L haplogroup also being present in the Middle East, Asia, Northern Africa and along the Mediterranean coast. The M superclade contains 19 internal mutations. This lineage is confined to Oceania and eastern Indonesia. The N haplogroup is defined by 10 mutations and is restricted to Northern Eurasia. Clade O is defined by four mutations and is a major haplogroup in East Asia. It is also found at a low frequency in Central Asia and Oceania. Haplogroup contain s the Q and R lineages. Clade Q is characterized by the M242 mutation and is distributed in North Eurasia with a high frequency in some Siberian groups. It is also found in Europe, East Asia and the Middle East and is the major lineage in native Americans. Cade R is defined by eight mutations and is the major y chromosomal lineage of Europeans. Clade S is defined by three mutations and is mostly found in Oceania and Indonesia. Clade T is identified by six mutations and is divided into two subclades found at a low frequency in Africa, Europe and the Middle East. The two primary splits in this tree lead to the A and B haplogroups, both of which are restricted to Africa. These are genetically diverse and have sub-haplogroups geographically distinct from each other. The remainder of the deep structures of the phylogeny are characterized by three sub-clusters that coalesce at the root of the CR-M168 node. These represent all the African haplogroups and all the non African haplogroups. There is a shared presence of the De haplogroup in Africa and Asia. The C haplogroup is a non African haplogroup and is widely distributed in East Asia, Oceania and North America. The haplogroup F-M89 is another non African cluster that is distributed all around the world. The F* and H haplogroups are restricted to Asia, the I haplogroup in Europe and the J haplogroup in the Middle East. Apart from the A and B haplogroups all other Y chromosome haplogroups descend from one ancestral node, CDEF which is defined by the mutations M168 and M294. This node is split into the C, DE and F haplogroups and these make up the majority of African and non African affiliated chromosomes. Due to the fact that the A and B haplogroups originate in Africa it was proposed the CDEF node also originated in Africa. An African origin of the DE haplogroup was supported with the detection of the DE* chromosome in Nigeria and by the recognition of the D-M174 haplogroup. See figure8d page 555 from Underhill It was proposed that two independent founder types D and CF evolved out of Africa (see figure above) The common ancestry of C and F founder types was supported by a single mutation, implying the diversification of CF from DE was shortly followed by they split of C from F. Although the D and E haplogroups share a common ancestry there is a geographic distance existing between the two of them. The D haplogroup is widely distributed in Asia and the E haplogroup is frequent in Africa. This suggests long term isolation and extinction of descendants in the area between Africa and Asia. Upon analysis of the Y chromosome it is clear that North Africa is genetically similar to the Middle East and there is a clear genetic difference between North-Western Africa and Sub-Sahara Africa and Europe. The lineages most prevalent to North Africa are absent in both Europe and sub-Saharan Africa. E3b2 is most common in North Africa, R1b is common in Europe and E3a is common in many sub-Saharan areas. This suggests that there was limited gene flow between North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa and Europe. E3b2 is rare outside of North Africa and the other dominant haplogroup J* in North Africa reaches its highest frequency in the Middle East indicating that there was gene flow between these two populations. It has been proposed that the J haplogroup originated in the Middle East. The M35 lineage is thought to have originated in East Africa due to its high frequency and diversity there. It is thought to have given rise to the M81 lineage, E3b2, that is found in North Africa. (Arredi et al, 2004) Exodus from Africa: The migration out of Africa is thought to have occurred over 100,000 years ago and is believed to have led to the later colonization of the rest of the world. The first evidence of the existence of modern humans outside of Africa has been dated to over 80,000 years ago. However, this was an isolated incidence and is thought to represent an early offshoot that has since died out. Successful migrations are believed to have occurred between 45,000 and 75,000 years ago. There are two scenarios describing modern humans dispersal from Africa. The first suggests a single migration event took place. This theory proposes that only about 150 people left Africa crossing the red sea. This is because only the descendants of one lineage, L3, are found outside Africa. The M and N haplogroups are rare in Africa and seem to have arrived recently. This may be a result of mutations in the L3 haplogroup arising in East Africa just before the dispersal out of Africa or may have arisen shortly after the m igration from Africa. The second scenario suggests a multiple dispersal model. This indicates that the M haplogroup crossed the Red Sea, travelled along the coast and arrived in India and the N haplogroup headed North, trailing the Nile and crossed into Asia through the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt. This group divided and went in several different directions. Some went east into Asia and others went to Europe. This scenario might clarify why the N haplogroup is predominant in Europe and the M haplogroup is absent. Mitochondrial evidence for the dispersal from Africa: Mitochondrial DNA analysis of present day African lineages points to a rapid population growth in the ancestral African population. Studies revealed a peak in African populations about 80,000 years ago with similar peaks in Asia and Europe somewhere between 60,000 and 40,000 years ago. This evidence shows a rapid increase in the African population much earlier than in Europe or Asia indicating expansion in Africa due to dispersion from a small population to other parts of the continent. There was an expansion of the L2 and L3 mitochondrial lineages about 80,000 and 60,000 years ago. Population diversity among African populations: There seems to be limited haplotype sharing among northern, eastern and Sub-Saharan Africans. Some haplotypes are common in one area but missing from the others. Chromosomes with the PN2 T and DYS271 A alleles are common in both northern and eastern Africa. These have been divided into different haplotypes, one of which bears the M81 mutation and is present in some Northern African populations and absent in Eastern African populations. There has been a population expansion in Northern Africa suggested by the age and the high frequency of the M81 haplotypes in north-western Africa. The spread of haplotypes 22 and 24, both of which contain the DYS271 allele, has erased pre-existing genetic differences among different regions in sub-Saharan Africa. Haplotypes 22, 24 and 41 have an extremely high frequency in Sub-Saharan Africans. It is thought that haplotype 41 was involved in the expansion of Bantu-speaking populations from western Africa into southern Africa. This is supported by the fact that the variance of haplotype 41 is much higher in the central western Africa than in southern Khosians. This is also true for the 22 and 24 haplotypes. An Eastern African origin: The oldest remains of modern humans were found in eastern and southern Ethiopia and have been dated to over 160,000 years ago. Eastern Africa is thought to be the origin of the earliest migrations of modern humans out of Africa. The M haplogroup has been found in high frequencies in Ethiopia and Asia. The presence of the Asian mtDNA haplogroup M is unique to Ethiopia. These two regions have a different variation o

The Voice of An Old Mans Winter Night :: Old Mans Winter Night

The Voice of "An Old Man's Winter Night" Perhaps the most haunting poem in Mountain Interval is "An Old Man's Winter Night," a poem about an old man dying in the wintry climate of New England and alone. Here, more so than in "The Oven Bird," the comfort of a warmly human subject is held out; no one who ever responded to a Norman Rockwell magazine cover could but be taken by the old man, alone in his house ("All out-of-doors looked darkly in at him"), unable to summon up the resources to hold the winter night at bay: What kept his eyes from giving back the gaze Was the lamp tilted near them in his hand. What kept him from remembering what it was That brought him to that creaking room was age. But if lovers of Rockwell had paused over these lines and tried to read and listen to them, they might well have noted how odd is their disposition. The "sense" of them is that the old man can't see out because the lamp won't permit him to see out -- all he gets back is an image of himself. And if he cannot see out, neither can he see in; he is so old that he can't remember how or why he is where he is. But what, in the prose paraphrase are concerned and sympathetic insights into the plight of old age, sound rather different when experienced through the sing-song, rather telegraphic formulations of the lines. As with "The Oven Bird" there is a heavy use of the verb "to be": "was" occurs three times in four lines, something a novice writer of poetry would try to avoid. And there are also three "whats," two of which occur in a single line ("What kept him from remembering what it was"), designed to make it hard to indulge in sad feelings about old age -- one notices the way that "age" i s quietly buried at the very end of the next line. Apropos of his sister Jeanie, Frost claimed that as he grew older he found it easier to lie awake and worry about other people's troubles. But he is at least as much a critic of such sympathetic identification with others -- lonely old men or oven birds -- as a practitioner of it. Or rather, some of the best poems in Mountain Interval derive their energy from the play of movement toward and withdrawal from the subject contemplated, play such as can be seen in two lines further on which summarize the old man in his setting;

The war which the world feared upon never happened

The war which the world feared upon never happened, the Cold War. United States of America and the Soviets are preparing for this battle as who among these super powers will really dominate the world. As a means of preparation they are to dominate the seas, especially the under sea navigational fleet, the Submarines.American leaders as a means of preparing for battle put their trust and confidence in their submarine force. Empowered by their own power plants these nuclear submarines are to dominate the seas with unbelievable sophistication and with weapons of incredible destructive power.The idea of submarine came from the Germans who were the ones who pioneered in the creation of the vessel during World War II (Weir, 1998). The US Navy has envisioned that submarines of the future would go deeper and move much faster. Thus as the years passed, the nuclear submarine was created.Under the US military force, the main mission of the first known SSBNs or â€Å"Ship Submersible Ballistic Nuclear† was for the prevention of war to happen. They are to be deployed to strategic sites for them to guard and thus to prevent war   (Weir, 1998). Because of their relentless power, as the nuclear is used to propel them, they have the capability to submerge and circumnavigate the world with fewer expenses. They can submerge for number of days to avoid detection and can easily guard strategic sites as their main mission. They are considered as the guardians of a possible nuclear war.According to David Munns in his book, the greatest advantage so that submarines, armed with ballistic missiles, can release its relentless power is that they have to be close to the shore. This idea was the main basis for the development of the undersea military force of both United States and the Soviet Union. Throughout the 45-year Cold War both countries developed submarines, especially nuclear powered, to gain intelligence or for espionage, due to its stealth power, and to attack and destr oy any possible enemy surface ships. Its powerful ballistic missiles have the ability to attack ground or land based targets. Both countries develop such powerful undersea fleet and were considered as the most potent nuclear threat for both of them. (Munns, 2004)The main idea was that to counter this powerful surface warships and nuclear propelled missile cruisers and aircraft carries they have to develop more powerful underground fleet (Munns, 2004). With the development of the nuclear power, the first ship that was ever built by the Americans that went to sea is the USS Nautilus. It went to sea on January of 1955. It is propelled by pressurized-water nuclear reactor plant. This firs submarine built by the Americans sets the new standard for submarines (Huchtausen, 2002).The Russians on the other hand, built their first submarine which went to sea on a much later date. The K-3 or also known as Leninsky Komosol, it is a part of the November class of attack submarines only went to se a only on 1958. This submarine was the first Soviet sub who have reached the North pole, only in 1962, which the United States first sub USS Nautilus have already done four years earlier. The November class submrines however had serious problems one example was the accident happened in 1968 of its K-27 due to a radioactive gas lead which killed 9 people (Huchthausen, 2002).The next Class of submarines that was built by the Americans was the Skipjack Class Submarines. Built in 1959, this attack submarine was the first to combine nuclear power which has extraordinary speed. This is more hydronamic which has a new teardrop hull design. All other US submarines that was created was based on this design. The known accident that happened for this class of submarine was on May 21, 1968 when the USS Skipjack Scorpion was lost in the sea and was nowhere to be found even due to extensive military search. All the 99 people aboard the submarine also lost their lives (Compton-Hall, 1999).The Sovi et built the Hotel-class submarines on 1960. This is the first Soviet Nuclear subs which carries with it ballistic missiles. The design of the November Class is much similar to that of the November class, but with much larger compartment to accommodate the ballistic missiles (Compton-Hall, 1999). On the same year the Skipjack Class was created, the US Military built the USS George Washington Class. Built and deployed on 1959, this submarine was the first Nuclear Ballistic missile submarine which was created. The main idea for this ballistic missile submarines was that it would attack land-based targets with its nuclear weapons. They are to be deployed near shore targets so that their long range missiles can easily hit their targets.The Soviets then build the Victor Class submarines in 1967. Their design was to attack enemy submarines and to protect surface ships of the Soviets. The new teardrop hull enabled the Victor Class to attain higher speed. The Soviets however abandoned the c onstruction of the second Victor submarine design after learning through spy information that the NATO forces could easily track them (Compton-Hall, 1999). Due to this, the Soviets created the Victor III submarine.The Americans on 1961 built the Thresher Class attack submarines. This submarine is much stronger, much faster, and can dive much deeper. It is also designed to be quieter than the Skipjack Class, the materials used in this class have more streaming improvements. The name was however changed from Thresher Class to Permit Class when the submarine Thresher sank in New England in 1963 killing all 129 crew (Huchtausen, 2002).In 1967, the Soviets created the Yankee Class submarines. This is the first Submarine that has the same firepower as that of the US submarines. This is much quieter than the Hotel Class due to a new hull shape, a new propeller design, and exterior sound-deadening coatings which is much harder to track. Several modifications were also made on this class, wi th its big design it was enabled to carry miniature submarines.On 1976, the Americans built and deployed the Los Angeles class. This class had 62 vessels built and is considered as the world’s largest nuclear-propelled submarine. This class was designed to primarily protect carriers and other enemy submarine. The purpose of this submarine was the same as that of the Soviet’s Victor Class. This submarine however was much more powerful than the Victor class because of its capability to do other special missions such as deployment of Special Forces on the ground and attacking larger targets. The Los Angeles class was also improved for better ice operations on the North and South Pole (Compton-Hall, 1999).The next class built by the Soviet and one of the last Class is the Typhoon class submarine. During its time, in 1981, it was considered as the world’s largest attack submarine. This improved design which is much quieter compared to its size. This submarine is also more maneuverable even if it is huge. The design of this submarine is much more complicated due to the existence of two pressure hulls which is parallel with each other and a third hull which is on top of them. This design increases its width and had simplified internal arrangements. Being part of a cooperative arms reduction program of the former Soviet states, six of the Typhoon class was dismantled in 2003 (Compton-Hall, 1999).The Ohio-class submarine is the last among the long line of designs of the ballistic-missile submarine fleet of US.   It replaced the old 1960s version and was larger and more capable than its precedents.   These subs can carry more and longer-range weapons, operate more quietly, and dive deeper (Compton-Hall, 1999).   Russia, on the other hand, designed the contemporary of Ohio, the Oscar submarines.   These are Russia’s largest and most advanced and are still active submarines.   Designed to attack U.S. aircraft carrier battle groups, it carries three times as many antiship cruise missiles than its predecessors (Compton-Hall, 1999).Norman Polmar and K.J. Moore, were two naval officials under the US Armed Forces who were interviewed by Munns in his book. They said that â€Å"the United States and the Soviet Union put to sea a combined total of 936 submarines, of which 401 were nuclear propelled,† during the whole Cold war from 1945-1991 (Munns, 2004). The Soviet Union was the one who is aggressive in the development of submarines. This development still continues until after the 1970’s where research and effort to make the vessels more powerful were developed.From the mid-1940s until early 1990s, Cold War was a period of conflict and competition between two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union.   It was also a period of great technological advancements in the military with no less than the development of nuclear submarines.   Faster, quieter and deadlier weapons were developed. It wa s also this same period which placed the entire world on edge. And knowing the potentials of these weapons, the war that never happened also brought unparalleled relief to mankind.WORKS CITED:Compton-Hall, Richard. The Submarine Pioneers. Sutton Publishing, 1999.Huchthausen, Peter. K-19: The Widowmaker—The Secret Story of the Soviet Nuclear Submarine. National Geographic Books, 2002.Munns, David W. Sea Power. May 2004. Retrieved at http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3738/is_200405/ai_n9345820Polmar, Norman and Moore,K.J. COLD WAR SUBMARINES: The Design and Construction of U.S. and Soviet Submarines.   Dulles, Va.: Brassey's, March 2004. 336 pp.Weir, Gary E. Deep Ocean, Cold War. Washington: Brassey’s, 1998.Evolution of Subs: U.S. and Soviet Submarine Milestones of the Cold War. National Geographic. < http://www.nationalgeographic.com/k19/evolution_main.html>

Definition and Examples of Lists in Composition

Definition and Examples of Lists in Composition Definition In composition, a list is a  series of particular images, details, or facts.  Also called a  series, a catalog, an inventory, and (in  classical rhetoric)  enumeratio. Lists are often used in works of fiction and creative nonfiction (including essays) to evoke a sense of place or character. Lists are commonly used in business writing and technical writing to convey factual information succinctly.   The items in a list are usually arranged in parallel form and separated by commas (or semicolons if the items themselves contain commas). In business writing and technical writing, lists are commonly arranged vertically, with each item preceded by a number or a bullet. Lists may also be used as a discovery or prewriting strategy. (See listing.) See Examples and Observations below. Also see: Writing With Descriptive ListsAccumulationAsyndeton and PolysyndetonCongeriesCoordinate Adjectives and Cumulative AdjectivesCrotEnumeratioFocusingListicleOutlineRhythmSpacingSerial CommaSynathroesmusSystropheTetracolon Climax  and  TricolonWilliam H. Gass on Writing With Lists Lists in Paragraphs and Essays Edward Abbeys List of Examples in The Great American DesertIan Fraziers List of Reasons in Great PlainsLists in Bill Brysons Neither Here Nor ThereLists in William Least Heat-Moons Place DescriptionStreet Yarn by Walt WhitmanWhen I Come to Be Old by Jonathan Swift Examples and Observations A rat can creep out late at night and have a feast. In the horse barn you will find oats that the trotters and pacers have spilled. In the trampled grass of the infield you will find old discarded lunch boxes containing the foul remains of peanut butter sandwiches, hard-boiled eggs, cracker crumbs, bits of doughnuts, and particles of cheese. In the hard-packed dirt of the midway, after the glaring lights are out and the people have gone home to bed, you will find a veritable treasure of popcorn fragments, frozen custard dribblings, candied apples abandoned by tired children, sugar fluff crystals, salted almonds, popsicles, partially gnawed ice cream cones, and the wooden sticks of lollypops. Everywhere is loot for a rat- in tents, in booths, in hay lofts- why, a fair has enough disgusting leftover food to satisfy a whole army of rats.(E.B. White, Charlottes Web. Harper Brothers, 1952)There were too many bells at  Castrevenford altogether. There were the clock chimes, which sounded the hours, halves and quarters with peevish insistence; the bells in the Science Building; the electric bell which marked the beginning and end of each lesson; the hand bells in the Houses; the chapel bell, which had obviously suffered some radical mishap during its casting.(Edmund Crispin [Bruce Montgomery],  Love Lies Bleeding, 1948) Her speech was an endlessly interesting, swerving path of old punch lines, heartfelt cris de coeur, puns new and old, dramatic true confessions, challenges, witty one-liners, wee Scotticisms, tag lines from Frank Sinatra songs, obsolete mountain nouns, and moral exhortations.(Annie Dillard, An American Childhood. Harper Row, 1987)What a jovial and a merry world would this be, may it please your worships, but for that inextricable labyrinth of debts, cares, woes, want, grief, discontent, melancholy, large jointures, impositions and lies!(Laurence Sterne, Tristram Shandy, 1759-1767)The modern technocracies of the West have their roots in the medieval European world, from which there emerged three great inventions: the mechanical clock, which provided a new conception of time; the printing press with movable type, which attacked the epistemology of the oral tradition; and the telescope, which attacked the fundamental propositions of Judeo-Christian theology. Each of these was significa nt in creating a new relationship between tools and culture.(Neil Postman, Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology. Alfred A. Knopf, 1992) One sometimes gets the impression that the mere words Socialism and Communism draw towards them with magnetic force every fruit-juice drinker, nudist, sandal-wearer, sex-maniac, Quaker, Nature Cure quack, pacifist and feminist in England.(George Orwell, The Road to Wigan Pier, 1937)Bare lists of words are found suggestive to an imaginative and excited mind.(Ralph Waldo Emerson, The Poet, 1844)My own inclination is to think of [lists] as a rhetorical figure- like hyperbole, say, or zeugma- as essentially humble figure that can be extended indefinitely and still flavour what it is applied to.(Francis Spufford, The Chatto Book of Cabbages and Kings: Lists in Literature. Chatto Windus, 1989)A List of Tom Sawyers TreasuresThere was no lack of material; boys happened along every little while; they came to jeer, but remained to whitewash. . . . And when the middle of the afternoon came, from being a poor poverty-stricken boy in the morning, Tom was literally rolling in wealth. He had besid es the things before mentioned, twelve marbles, part of a jews-harp, a piece of blue bottle-glass to look through, a spool cannon, a key that wouldnt unlock anything, a fragment of chalk, a glass stopper of a decanter, a tin soldier, a couple of tadpoles, six fire-crackers, a kitten with only one eye, a brass door-knob, a dog-collar- but no dog- the handle of a knife, four pieces of orange-peel, and a dilapidated old window sash.He had had a nice, good, idle time all the while- plenty of company- and the fence had three coats of whitewash on it! If he hadn’t run out of whitewash he would have bankrupted every boy in the village.(Mark Twain, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, 1876) The Contents of Mildreds CupboardsWhen she opened the cupboards, an ache slid down her forehead into her nasal passage and throbbed on the roof of each nostril. It continued like an arrow into her skull, and skated up and down her neck until it had no place else to go. Mildred gave her head a good shake. Bags of black-eyed peas, pinto beans, butter beans, lima beans, and a big bag of rice stared her in the face. She opened another cabinet and there sat half a jar of peanut butter, a can of sweet peas and carrots, one can of creamed corn, and two cans of pork-n-beans. There was nothing in the refrigerator except a few crinkly apples shed gotten from the apple man two weeks ago, a stick of margarine, four eggs, a quart of milk, a box of lard, a can of Pet milk, and a two-inch piece of salt pork.(Terry McMillan, Mama. Houghton Mifflin, 1987)The List as a Graphic Device- Keep in mind that graphic devices should be used carefully and with moderation, not just for decoration or to dress up a letter or report. Used properly, they can help you toorganize, arrange, and emphasize your ideasmake your work easier to read and recallpreview and summarize your ideas, for example, headingslist related items to help readers distinguish, follow, compare, and recall themas this bulleted list does(Philip C. Kolin, Successful Writing at Work, 8th ed. Houghton Mifflin, 2007)- The most important effect of any list is to create white space on the page, making for a relaxed visual environment in which information can be scanned and understood.(Roy Peter Clark, How to Write Short. Little, Brown and Company, 2013) The Appeal of Online ListsWe share what we’re thinking about- and we think about the things we can remember. This facet of sharing helps explain the appeal of list-type stories . . ., as well as stories that stick in your mind because they are bizarre. Lists also get shared because of another feature that [marketing professor Jonah] Berger often finds successful: the promise of practical value. We see top-ten lists on Buzzfeed and the like all the time, he notes. It allows people to feel like there’s a nice packet of useful information that they can share with others. We want to feel smart and for others to perceive us as smart and helpful, so we craft our online image accordingly.(Maria Konnikova, The Six Things That Make Stories Go Viral Will Amaze, and Maybe Infuriate, You. The New Yorker, January 21, 2014)The Functions of Lists- Lists . . . may compile a history, gather evidence, order and organize phenomena, present an agenda of apparent formlessness, and express a multiplicity of voices and experiences. . . .Each unit in a list possesses an individual significance but also a specific meaning by virtue of its membership with the other units in the compilation (though this is not to say that the units are always equally significant). Writers find a wide range of application for lists because of this capability, and subsequently critics offer a variety of readings.(Robert E. Belknap, The List: The Uses and Pleasures of Cataloguing. Yale University  Press, 2004)- [E]ssayists have been using the list as a way to structure thought for a long time. (Sontag’s Notes on Camp, to point to a famous example, takes the form of a list of fifty-eight numbered fragments.) But the list is a way of writing that anticipates, and addresses itself to, a certain capriciousness in the reader. By not only allowing partial and fleeting engagement but by actively encouraging it, the list becomes the form which accommodates itself most smoothly to the way a lo t of us read now, a lot of the time. It’s the house style of a distracted culture.(Marc OConnell, 10 Paragraphs About Lists You Need in Your Life Right Now. The New Yorker, August 29, 2013) Dorothy Sayers on the Advertisers ListsThe very work that engaged him- or rather, the shadow simulacrum of himself that signed itself on every morning- wafted him into a sphere of dim platonic archetypes, bearing a scarcely recognizable relationship to anything in the living world. Here those strange entities, the Thrifty Housewife, the Man of Discrimination, the Keen Buyer and the Good Judge, for ever young, for ever handsome, for ever virtuous, economical and inquisitive, moved to and fro upon their complicated orbits, comparing prices and values, making tests of purity, asking indiscreet questions about each others ailments, household expenses, bed-springs, shaving cream, diet, laundry work and boots, perpetually spending to save and saving to spend, cutting out coupons and collecting cartons, surprising husbands with margarine and wives with patent washers and vacuum-cleaners, occupied from morning to night in washing, cooking, dusting, filing, saving their children from germs, t heir complexions from wind and weather, their teeth from decay and their stomachs from indigestion, and yet adding so many hours to the day by labour-saving appliances  that they had always leisure for visiting the talkies, sprawling on the beach to picnic upon Potted Meats and Tinned Fruit, and (when adorned by So-and-sos Silks, Blanks Gloves, Dashs Footwear, Whatnots Weatherproof Complexion Cream and Thingummys Beautifying Shampoos), even attending Renalagh, Cowes, the Grand Stand at Ascot, Monte Carlo and the Queens Drawing-Rooms.(Dorothy L. Sayers, Murder Must Advertise, 1933) Tom Wolfes List: Subway Station at 50th Street and Broadway (circa 1965)All round them, tens, scores, it seems like hundreds, of faces and bodies are perspiring, trooping and bellying up the stairs with arteriosclerotic grimaces past a showcase full of such novelty items as Joy Buzzers, Squirting Nickels, Finger Rats, Scary Tarantulas and spoons with realistic dead flies on them, past Freds barbershop, which is just off the landing and has glossy photographs of young men with the kind of baroque haircuts one can get in there, and up onto 50th Street into a madhouse of traffic and shops with weird lingerie and gray hair-dyeing displays in the windows, signs for free teacup readings and a pool-playing match between the Playboy Bunnies and Downeys Showgirls, and then everybody pounds on toward the Time-Life Building, the Brill Building or NBC.(Tom Wolfe, A Sunday Kind of Love. The Kandy-Kolored Tangerine-Flake Streamline Baby. Farrar, Straus Giroux, 1965)Two Lists in Tender Is the Nigh tWith Nicole’s help Rosemary bought two dresses and two hats and four pairs of shoes with her money. Nicole bought from a great list that ran two pages, and bought the things in the windows besides. Everything she liked that she couldn’t possibly use herself, she bought as a present for a friend. She bought colored beads, folding beach cushions, artificial flowers, honey, a guest bed, bags, scarfs, love birds, miniatures for a doll’s house and three yards of some new cloth the color of prawns. She bought a dozen bathing suits, a rubber alligator, a traveling chess set of gold and ivory, big linen handkerchiefs for Abe, two chamois leather jackets of kingfisher blue and burning bush from Hermesbought all these things not a bit like a high-class courtesan buying underwear and jewels, which were after all professional equipment and insurancebut with an entirely different point of view. Nicole was the product of much ingenuity and toil. For her sake trains began the ir run at Chicago and traversed the round belly of the continent to California; chicle factories fumed and link belts grew link by link in factories; men mixed toothpaste in vats and drew mouthwash out of copper hogsheads; girls canned tomatoes quickly in August or worked rudely at the Five-and-Tens on Christmas Eve; half-breed Indians toiled on Brazilian coffee plantations and dreamers were muscled out of patent rights in new tractorsthese were some of the people who gave a tithe to Nicole, and as the whole system swayed and thundered onward it lent a feverish bloom to such processes of hers as wholesale buying, like the flush of a fireman’s face holding his post before a spreading blaze. She illustrated very simple principles, containing in herself her own doom, but illustrated them so accurately that there was grace in the procedure, and presently Rosemary would try to imitate it.(F. Scott Fitzgerald, Tender Is the Night, 1934) Clarks List at the Museum of Civilization: The Snow GlobeConsider the snow globe. Consider the mind that invented those miniature storms, the factory worker who turned sheets of plastic into white flakes of snow, the hand that drew the plan for the miniature Severn City with its church steeple and city hall, the assembly-line worker who watched the globe glide past on a conveyer belt somewhere in China. Consider the white gloves on the hands of the woman who inserted the snow globes into boxes, to be packed into larger boxes, crates, shipping containers. Consider the card games played belowdecks in the evenings on the ship carrying the containers across the ocean, a hand stubbing out a cigarette in an overflowing ashtray, a haze of blue smoke in dim light, the cadences of a half dozen languages united by common profanities, the sailors’ dreams of land and women, these men for whom the ocean was a gray-line horizon to be traversed in ships the size of overturned skyscrapers. Co nsider the signature on the shipping manifest when the ship reached port, a signature unlike any other on earth, the coffee cup in the hand of the driver delivering boxes to the distribution center, the secret hopes of the UPS man carrying boxes of snow globes from there to the Severn City Airport. Clark shook the globe and held it up to the light. When he looked through it, the planes were warped and caught in whirling snow.(Emily St. John Mandel, Station Eleven. Alfred A. Knopf, 2014)